Similarities of the Mongolian and Macedonian Conquest and Empire

To much of the surprise of the Western world, the Mongol Empire expanded rapidly, both through use of brutality and tolerance. The Mongols were aggressive in battle, unlike the world had previously seen (Mongols in World History 1). They utilized novel military strategy and maintained heightened standards of skill and training. By these means, as well as psychological warfare which induced terror among those they conquered, the Mongols were able to spread rapidly, so much so that their conquest initiated the first direct contact between Europe and Eastern Asia.

Their military skill proved advantageous in the spread of their Empire, but the practice of tolerance, which anteceded their vicious brutality, often was the driving source of stability of their newly conquered lands. They assimilated well with other cultures and practiced both religious and cultural tolerance, which encouraged a mutually responsive and accepted relationship between the Mongols and newly conquered people (Mongols in World History 6). Such cohesiveness allowed their exaggerated expansion sustainable for the time of their rule.

Much like the Mongols, the Macedonians practiced brutality in conquering, but were also somewhat tolerant of local religions and customs. From a military perspective, the Macedonians were skilled and maintained technically abled fighting forces. Advanced skills and military innovations, such as the Macedonian phalanx and Torsion catapults, improved their ability in conquest quickly, allowing Alexander the Great to control one of the largest empires the world had yet seen. In respect to the tolerance practiced by Alexander the Great during his conquest, Alexander encouraged a “bicultural future” in which Macedonians were encouraged to adopt customs of those they had conquered (Demand 314). This helped to blend cultures and to ease the acquisition of power and maintenance of stability. He practiced “shared administration” and allowed those he had conquered, including the Persians, to be integrated into his Macedonian army (Demand 314). As well, Alexander went so far as to adopt certain dress and customs expected of rulers of his conquered lands in order to emphasize the legitimacy of his new authority.

Both the Mongol and Macedonian Empires practiced mutual cultural assimilation in order to encourage cohesion and stability of their newly conquered lands. While this tolerance is certainly unexpected to follow such vicious, military brutality, both of these peoples were able to successfully conquer new lands in an unprecedented, aggressive fashion, and then transition to a more positive and responsive culture.

-Meagan Stevenson

Sources: The Mongols in World History, p. 1-6 transcript of the text found at <http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols>

Demand, Chapter 15, Alexander the Great, p. 314

*Sources can be found in class reading syllabus.

Preparation within the Past

As future military officers, it is crucial that we look to our world’s past for a greater understanding of successful strategy and how to conduct ourselves. The United States Navy would not be the naval superpower it is today without implementing ideas and tactics from the ancient world, and it must continue to do so in order to maintain superiority. One of most valuable civilizations we can draw knowledge from is that of ancient China. The war strategy described by ancient Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu in “The Art of War” is of infinite value to our military today and we can similarly draw on ancient China’s philosophies and way of life as a whole for proper military conduct.

Sun Tzu’s military philosophy in “The Art of War” has persisted through the centuries as one of the most important doctrines for officers to review and follow. Tzu largely focuses on the significance of planning and decision-making during times of war, stating that war “is to be pondered carefully … [this is] the difference between survival and extinction” (2). He terms the “Five Fundamentals” of war: the Way, Heaven, Earth, command, and discipline; upon these fundamentals rests victory or defeat. Leaders of various military groups have a responsibility to know the Way, be on the side of Heaven and Earth, and to enforce command and discipline. The US Navy today has a similar set of values to those described by Tzu, as it is of utmost importance that leaders maintain honor, courage, and commitment. It is clear that the US Navy, and other modern militaries around the world, have used Tzu’s doctrine as a model for their own regulations. If hoping to be successful in the Fleet today, officers today must internalize the strategy techniques described by Tzu.

While Tzu’s piece may be the most relevant military takeaway from ancient China, the general philosophies and way of life from this area and time period can also positively impact today’s military. The three major philosophies of ancient China were Confucianism, legalism, and Daoism. Confucianism focuses on “the principles of etiquette, humaneness, righteousness, and loyalty” (1). The “jen and li” aspect of Confucian thought provide an emphasis on order and harmony. Legalism revolves around governance with strict punishments and small rewards. Lastly, Daoists believe that the path of least resistance should be followed and that there is a natural order or path. An officer’s understanding of legalism could lead to a better perspective on why certain rules and regulations must exist within the military. Also, officers are expected to follow the Confucian values of proper conduct and loyalty in addition to the Daoist principles of natural order and respect.

While thousands of years have passed between ancient China and modern day, the ideals and values each officer should employ has not changed. According to Tzu and ancient China, an officer should be responsible, courageous, strategic, loyal, and respectful. The same goes for officers and enlisted in the United States Navy today; we need leaders who are dedicated to their own development and that of those around them. Through recalling the ideas and techniques used in ancient China, specifically Tzu’s “The Art of War” and their major philosophies, we can hope to be a more insightful and prepared military force today.

Lauren McDonnell

Word Count: 552

Sources:

“An Overview of Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism,” Vision Times. Accessed 9 March 2019.
Sun-tzu, “The Art of War.” Trans. John Minford. London: Penguin, 2009.

The Significance of Control According to Sun Tzu and USNA

The overarching philosophy of Sun Tzu’s Art of War emphasizes the incredible significance of control within the business of warfighting. Sun Tzu characterizes control in many ways in his written piece, including two of his Five Fundamentals “Command” and “Discipline”. While he defines these as “Wisdom, Integrity, Compassion, Courage, Severity” and “Organization, Chain of Command, Control of Expenditure” respectively, these can also be identified as control of others and control of self (Sun-tzu 4). Sun Tzu continues in his Art of War, describing the strategy of war as “A Way of Deception”, clarifying that “Ultimate Excellence lies not in winning every battle but in defeating the enemy without Ever fighting” (Sun-tzu 6). One could perceive this as another form of control; control of perception and appearance. By strategizing deceptively, one controls the enemy’s perception of the future and can effectively accomplish this by strictly controlling their own appearance. Sun Tzu later concluded his Art of War by affirming that the art of war is “the Art of Managing Many…the Mastery of Spirit…the Master of Change” (Sun-tzu 43-44). All of these descriptions can be redefined control of others, control of self, and control of change, respectively. Overall, Sun Tzu’s Art of War is the art of maintaining control.

This is similar to lessons taught at the United States Naval Academy. Discipline is impressed upon each midshipman who passes through the curriculum and training of this institution, and remains a vital portion to the development of each military leader. Much like Sun Tzu expresses, discipline is used in order to develop attributes such as wisdom, honor, courage, dedication, and an effective chain of command. Above all, discipline develops control of self and of one’s people. Through discipline, midshipmen learn control.

As to which way is the more effective way of war, the United States Naval Academy’s version of discipline is superior in the facet of disciplining others. Sun Tzu expresses ideas of “managing others” as a way to control their behavior most effectively, thereby eluding to the process of controlling others so as to use them most effectively. However, at the United States Naval Academy, to control others is to instil discipline within them so that they too may be better suited to complete the mission at hand, but also become a more developed, self actualized individual. The United States Navy trains and disciplines its sailors so that they may be the most efficient warriors in the military community, but it also invests in its people so that they may grow. This recognition on the needs, individuality, and humanity of its lower ranked fighting forces makes the discipline philosophy of the United States Naval Academy more efficient than the philosophy of Sun Zhu.

Sources: Sun-tzu, The Art of War. Trans. John Minford. London: Penguin, 2009.

-Meagan Stevenson

Word Count: 465

Soviet Mongols

The Mongol empire and to an extent the Russian empire under the USSR were very similar in their outward perception that the nation was weak and then became very strong very quickly. The pre-USSR Czarist Russia was a very backward and old school nation with many people still being surfs and keeping up large amounts of small farming plots. While the country was not as split as the nomadic tribes of the Mongols, it was widely accepted that the Russians were fairly weak and slow react to threats. However when the Soviet Union, or USSR was established the country began to rapidly modernize through Stalin’s 5 year plans. In the late 1930’s the nation earned its other similarity to the Mongols, being brutal but tolerant. The Soviet Union was for example much more tolerant of the Jews as opposed to the Germans. This is very evident through German Anti-Jewish Propaganda put out by the Nazi party. The Nazis blamed the Jews for the losing of the First World War along with the other enemies of the Nazi party such as Communists. While the Russians didn’t always treat the Jews the best they didn’t treat their own people that well to begin with. The other way the Russians were similar to the Mongols were that they were a substantial military power once they had formed and organized their military despite Stalin’s purges. They did this by essentially ignoring the well being of the workers and soldiers, and making massive amounts of weapons which they overwhelmed the attacking Germans with. This tactic is very similar to the Mongols who overwhelmed their enemies with massive swooping attacks with more troops in reserve. This is reflected at Kursk where the Russians threw a massive amount of tanks at the oncoming Germans. Primary sources from the battle on both sides account massive amounts of tanks clashing both literally and physically. One German crewman notes that he stopped a charging Russian tank only 26 feet from his own vehicle. The numbers at the battle of Prokhorovka numbered in the thousands of tanks with huge losses on both the German and Russian lines. While the German’s losses were hard to replace, the Russians had a reserve totaling a massive 5000 tanks waiting for their chance to attack. This is very similar to the Mongols who kept some forces in reserve to surprise a tired enemy with fresh and ready attacks.

George Williams

Word count: 403

Blog #5

Prompt #1

The Mongol Empire was one of the most expansive and dangerous empires of all time — yet they did not start this way. Their regime came to control most of Asia and Eastern Europe through the influence of Genghis Khan and his descendants. Their rule was one of brutality and relentless conquest which left a great number of civilizations in utter ruin. The great territorial gain and lust for land and dominance can be compared to many other civilizations in history, yet one nation mirrors their conquest well. The British Empire at its height in the early 1900’s had swayed millions of people to conform to its rule and had territories covering nearly every continent. The Mongol Empire can be compared to the British Empire in its rapid spread, new and effective regime, and its dominance in the world scene.

During its conquest across central Asia, The Mongols used a variety of tactics and special strategies in order to gain victory over their enemies. They came from mountainous areas between China and Siberia, mainly inhabiting the plateau region of central Asia. Because their land was so harsh and poor for food and settlements, they were a nomadic people. Their main source of sustenance was livestock, goats, and other animals due to the lack of poor farming conditions. Warfare was an integral part of their society. They also raised horses and utilized them in their military conquests. Doctors were present in Mongol society and various medicines and medical treatments were practiced, primarily in response to battle wounds. The culture centered around warriors and fighting was the most esteemed art. Everyone in the civilization was either a warrior or directly supportive of one. At the height of the Mongol Empire, they controlled nearly all of Asia and a large portion of Europe, with next to no hostages or slaves. They rarely subjugated populations — they typically interbred with them or eliminated them. This is one of the major differences they have with the British.

The British Empire began humbly, as the Mongols did, on an island in Western Europe. Over a long period of expansion and colonialism, they were able to acquire territories in North America, South America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. In the process of doing so, they completely wiped out a great number of populations and innocent civilians, as the Mongols did. They also employed tactics which were advanced compared to those of their enemies, also similar to the Mongols. They were easily the most influential world power during the time when their empire spanned the entire globe. They had little rivals and were defeated by unexpected enemies with forces greater than anticipated.

The Mongol Empire carries similarities to various successful empires in world history, namely the British Empire due to its expansive reach, its tactics in conquest, and its treatment of conquered peoples.

Cameron Douglas

Word count: 472

Christianity: Defying the Odds

While there is widespread acceptance of Christianity in the contemporary context, particularly so in western society, this was definitively not always the case. Since its inception, Christianity has fought for centuries against odds stacked overwhelmingly against its favor. At a critical moment in the history of the west, Constantine the Great assumed command of the Roman Empire, and his radical support of Christianity enabled the basis for evangelization across the Roman Empire.

Policies enacted by Constantine relieved the prior pressure of persecution exerted on Christians forming a conduit through which missionaries could facilitate the spread of the religion. It was the nature of Christian religious doctrine, however, that enabled Christianity to take root in the early 300s AD. In large part this success was due to the Christians’ ability to utilize preexisting social institutions to promote monotheistic ideals, primarily in its appeal to lower classes in its salvation doctrine.

This aspect of utilizing preexisting social institutions to propagate a religious agenda was preciously the strategy of Julian the Apostate in his crusade to both revitalize paganism across the Roman Empire and discredit Christianity. Julian took a “three prong” approach towards disenfranchising Christianity. Attempting to first use legislation to discriminate against Christians thereby isolating them, he would then proactively approach disenfranchisement through mirroring the preexisting Christian structure of churches in his creation of a pagan church system [1]. Finally, he mounted a “philosophical assault” on Christianity to fundamentally undermine its religious doctrine.

In a stroke of luck, Christianity survived narrowly such a hostile and concerted effort to eradicate the religion. The immense proliferation of the religion under Constantine was as unforeseen as it was statistically improbable.

Today, Julian the Apostate is generally viewed in the context of the predominantly protestant narrative if western society, casting a light on his as a manic, Christian-hater. It’s important to note, however, that he was viewed by his contemporaries in an overall positive light, as most were pagans themselves. Paganism was representative of Hellenistic heritage, enabling Julian’s campaigns to revive Paganism to garner a nostalgic and “romantic appeal.”

So how did Christianity make its narrow escape from its seemingly inevitable extinction? While paganism is a largely individualistic religion, Christianity has a need to share the faith built into its core. Julian elitism is also to blame for the failure of paganism as it postulated that only the elite could possibly comprehend religious doctrine. In light of these shortcomings on the part of Julian as well as his untimely death, Christianity was afforded the opportunity to defy the odds and survive eradication. Through the nature of the religion itself and the tactful policy making of Constantine the Great, Christianity capitalized on this opportunity of survival and rose to dominance in the west.

–Julia Lotterer

Word Count: 503

Sources:

[1] https://www.roman-emperors.org/julian.htm

[2] https://www.thoughtco.com/julian-and-the-fall-of-paganism-119349

Blog #5

The Chinggis Khan and the Mongolian Empire is prime example of how the world can change through the will of a single man. The Mongolian Empire seemed to rise out of nowhere and expanded at such an alarming rate, that its neighbors had no idea how to stop this empire. The Mongolian’s brutal and unprecedented aggression stunned both Asian and European countries worldwide. Even in today’s society, historians look back and comment about the unique warfare and way of life the Mongolians lived. With such a brutal and terror inducing country, there are very few regimes that can even emulate the brutality and sinister treatment the Mongolians did upon their enemies.

The rise of ISIS is a society that is comparable to the Mongolians. ISIS’s asymmetric and non-linear warfare shocked the world with its use of the media to display and convert people to aide in their mission. ISIS emulated the PAX Mongolica in a very similar way. The PAX Mongolica says that as long as you pay your dues, no start any uprising, and recognize the Mongolians as your ruler, you can live in peace. During ISIS’s regime, as long as you are a practicing Muslim, and not a westerner, and recognize and abide by the caliphate of ISIS, you can live as you please. Another way ISIS operates like the Mongols is by using trickery. The Mongolians would put dummies on horses and light additional fires to signal a larger force than what they currently have. ISIS employs this tactic through social media. They recruit people into their type of thinking, and use those people to commit mass atrocities. Some of these atrocities mostly centered on attacking the civilian population. From the Nice attack in 2016 where a ISIS supporter drove a truck and ran over and killed 86 people, to the bombings in the Brussels Airport that killed 32 people. These gives the impression that ISIS is everywhere and has no limit or bounds to their rule. Along with mass atrocities, ISIS has committed a few of their own. Most notable is the worldwide recording of the beheading of a foreign reporter. This video was published on YouTube. This video was made by ISIS to warn against more Western aggression in Iraq and Iran. The man in the video states that only more will come if they continue to occupy Iraq and Iran. This type of deterrence is similar to the Mongolians in which made pyramids with the skulls of the people that they slayed. This type of psychological warfare was aimed to affects the morale of the enemy.

Although ISIS cannot match the brutality and sheer terror inducing acts of horror that the Mongolians have done, ISIS follows the same path of employing psychological acts against their enemy to deter them from entering future conflict with ISIS, pursing a PAX Mongolica type of stability within the countries that ISIS occupies, and committing cruel atrocities.

~488 words

Vincent Potente

History’s Darkest Times

April 1, 2019 | Blog 5

In a few years, one man orchestrated the deaths of millions of men, women, and children across Europe, Asia, and Africa.

This man was Adolf Hitler.

If you were thinking of Genghis Khan, you’re not wrong. But, I’ll save him for later comparison.

From the rise to fall of Nazi Germany (1933-1945) under the Führer, the Nazis murdered millions across Europe for reasons concerning race, religion, handicap, sexual preference, and politics. Annually, the Nazis killed six to seven people out of every hundred in occupied Europe. The odds of a European dying under Nazi occupation were about one in fifteen.

How did this all start?

Adolf Hitler blamed the loss of World War I and German economic depression on Jewish capitalism. As World War II broke out, Jews fell victim to Germany’s policies of oppression and extermination.

Jews were not the only ones who were victim to Nazi Germany’s ruthlessness. Those of other races and religions were targeted as well. Political opponents were eliminated, and “undesirables” were euthanized.

However, German occupation was also distinguished by tolerance for those who were compliant. A brilliant example of such tolerance was in the occupation of Denmark (1940 to 1945). The Danish government immediately cooperated with the Germans, as it wanted to preserve Denmark while accommodating the wishes of the Germans.

Most Danes, as a result, were able to continue their daily lives much as before occupation. Although there were shortages of certain goods in Denmark, the Danes had one of the highest standards of living in Europe during the war years.

How is Nazi Germany so similar to the Mongol Empire? Similar to how Nazi Germany spread rapidly through blitzkrieg, the Mongol Empire expanded through the success of skillful military leaders. The Mongols relied on their archery cavalry, and this led to the empire, at the peak of its power, to be almost six times larger than Nazi Germany.

If the Mongols’ goal was to be the most brutal people ever to walk on this planet, they succeeded. Almost wiping out 10% of the world’s population, the Mongol armies decimated cities and used captives as sacrificial lambs. Historians estimate the death toll to be nearly 40 million people, double the number Nazi Germany so proudly boasted.

“They came, they sapped, they burnt, they slew, they plundered, and they departed,” Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni recollected bluntly during the Mongol invasion of Central Asia.

While crueler, the Mongols were still more tolerant than the Nazis. Those who submitted to the Mongols enjoyed a fearless life while only paying taxes. The Mongols held a high tolerance for other religions and cultures. In fact, the Mongols were so successful due to their ability to assimilate and adapt to different cultures.

During the Pax Mongolica, the Mongols promoted interstate relations and provided travel and protection for artisans and merchants. The Mongols even recognized the importance of trade, resulting in tax breaks for traders.

Examining the Mongols and Germans side-by-side, we recognize striking similarities in regards to extreme brutality and surprising tolerance. Hitler’s Nazi Germany is well known for its slaughter of millions in an attempt to provide living space for their superior race, while the Mongols left a path of destruction as Genghis Khan led his armies far across Asia into Europe and the Middle East. Both leaders’ iron fists on conquered territories relaxed, allowing religion, culture, and trade to develop and flourish.

Nonetheless, the reigns of Genghis Khan and Adolf Hitler left dark stains on the tapestry of human history, and we as people of the modern times can hopefully learn some lessons about the past to not repeat the same mistakes in the future.

— Cameron Guan

Word Count: 595

Sources:

Quote by Ata-Malik Juvayni on Mongol invasion of Transoxania (c. 1219)

Christianity Was Inevitable

With the Native American explanation of the power of nature to the polytheist approach taken in Hinduism, humans have always tried to understand the natural world through religion. A common thread that unites the human experience is a need to explain the natural environment in order to develop both a sense of purpose and understanding. There are an endless number of ways to approach understanding the functioning of the the world around us, none of them more right than the other. Even the most well established religions of today once started as mystery cults and spread through various means, this concept of the infectious nature of religion is especially characteristic of Christianity. Starting as a mystery cult, Christianity is now the world’s largest religious group with 31.5% of the world identify as Christian according to a 2015 study done by Pew Research.

For hundreds of years, Roman society was heavily influenced by their polytheistic religion as evidence by the infrastructure of the city’s emphasis on traditional pagan practices. The world’s most widely practiced religion stemmed from a dream of Constantine, a powerful Roman emperor, about the Battle of Milvian Bridge. In the dream, he was instructed to fight under the banner of the Chi Rho, the period’s symbol of Christianity, and his victory would be guaranteed. The dream coming to fruition had two long lasting impacts that shaped the Roman empire and the world forever: Constantine’s victory over Maximinus allowed him to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, additionally it gave Christianity the credibility to develop into a widely accepted religion. Without this decisive victory at a strategically important location, Christianity would have had lacked serious footing to develop into the powerful religion it is today.

Christianity was victorious over traditional pagan religious because of the Edict of Milan, the effective organization and the inclusionary message. Issued by Constantine, the Edict of Milan declared Christianity as a legal religion, effectively halting the persecution of Christians. While Christianity was the religious minority, the organized structure of the church and the use of missionaries made the religion extremely accessible and easy to comprehend for people of all backgrounds. In addition, in contrast to works based religions, Christianity appealed to people of all backgrounds because it an not exclusionary on the basis on education or wealth. Because of the climate in the Roman empire that resulted from the victory of the Battle of Milvian Bridge, the spread of Christianity was inevitable.

-Mack Pearson

Word Count: 411

Confucianism: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly

Ideally, Utopian societies succeed. Everything works as it should, a perfect world. However, very rarely do those theories that ought to be successful come to fruition. Oftentimes, some small error causes great ideas to fail. Confucianism and the rule of scholars shows that sometimes good ideas work out and sometimes it is too good to be true.

Staffing a bureaucracy with scholars works because the intellectuals are put in charge. These people study their entire lives. They learn about history to prevent history from repeating itself. Confucianism included passing down lessons from generation to generation. This ensured that knowledge was less likely to be lost. Confucianism also stabilized the government. The Han Dynasty especially used it to maintain control over their empire. It allowed for levelheaded leaders to think through what should be done for the good of China. Putting educated scholars in charge allowed for emotion to be removed from the decision-making process. One of the teachings of Confucius states “To govern simply by statute, and to reduce all to order by means of pains and penalties, is to render the people evasive, and devoid of any sense of shame” (Confucius Book 2). This reveals how they could make clear and level decisions that were for the best of the people. Scholars could analyze what exactly had happened in similar events in the past, what course of action was taken, and how it affected the outcome. They decided what worked and what did not work. Thus improving decision making and bringing about stability.

On the flip side, putting scholars in charge of the government possessed its downsides. Ideally, scholars made the best decisions, but in actuality it’s impossible. Just like communism, it might look good, but in practicality it will not work. Scholars do not always understand what is really occurring in the world. They assume that an idea works because it worked in the past, but no two situations are the same. They might rely only on past knowledge and forget that changes have occurred in technology. Or they might rely on events to happen in a certain manner where fate has a different idea. Another of Cunfucius’ stories states “Let a leader,” said he, “show rectitude in his own personal character, and even without directions from him things will go well. If he be not personally upright, his directions will not be complied with” (Confucius Book 13). This proves how wrong some of the ideas could be, even though they theoretically should work. Scholars often remain distant and disjointed from society. This prevents them from accurately having a grip on the full scenario of what may be occurring in their society.

The Supreme Court proves to be a scholar-run bureaucracy in today’s world. Nine justices serve life terms to forge the path for better decision-making in the U.S. The justices hear court cases that they deem to have a large impact on the nation. They also interpret the Constitution to the best of their abilities and clarify meanings for future use. In this manner, the scholar-run bureaucracy works because the Supreme Court is the least powerful of the three branches of government. While they retain the power to interpret the constitution and label policies as unconstitutional, they cannot take on an aggressive role in society. By limiting their power, this form of Confucianism functions well without becoming corrupt.

-Moira Camacho

Word Count: 490

The Analects of Confucius – Book 2, www.confucius-1.com/analects/analects-2.html.

The Analects of Confucius – Book 13, http://www.confucius-1.com/analects/analects-13.html.